تحقیق درباره مواد خام انواع کالباس ها و سوسیس ها

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In the name of God

SAUSAGE

RWE

MATERIALS

Master: Mr. Farhad Narjespour

Compiler: Fatemeh Mirzaee

-مواد خام انواع کالباس ها و سوسیس ها:

انتخاب مواد تشکیل دهنده پایه ای است برای تولید انواع کالباس و سوسیس ها، با کیفیت استاندارد و ثابت. از میان گوشت گاو، گوشت گوساله و خوک، برای تولید، مهم ترین گوشت اصلی تشکیل دهنده مواد کالباس ها و سوسیس ها گوشت گوسفند، گوشت مرغ و پرندگان اهلی و انواع دیگر گوشت با هم، هستند.

یک بخش از مواد خام گوشت، چنذین عنصر غیرگوشتی مانند نمک برای دودی کردن، شکر، و ادویه جات است که استفاده از آن ها در تولید انواع سویس ها و کالباس ها در حال افزایش است.

بسیاری از کشورها قوانین مهمی را در استفاده از اجزاء و عناصر مختلف برای فرمولاسیون انواع کالباس و سویس در بر دارند. ولیکن در چندین کشور پیشرفته قوانین خارج از آن است و آن ها به کار برده نمی شوند.

بخصوص در کشورهای پیشرفته فشارهای حکومتی در کم کردن مقداری از نمک، نیتریت، نیترات و افزودنی ها و مواد دیگر در تولید انواع مختلف کالباس و سوسیس ها وجود دارد.

-گوشت های هاهیچه:

گوشت های استخوان ماهیچه حاصل از لاشه های حیوانات جزء مهمی است که در تولید کالباس ها و سوسیس ها ساتفاده می شود. ولیکن ماهیچه های استخوان های مختلف خیلی نیستند. محتیوات آن ها چربی، آب و پروتئین ها هستند. هم چنین پیوند آبی (چسبناک)، خصوصیات امولیسیونی، رنگ و ... همه گوشت های ماهیچه ای استخوان ها مانند لاشه های بریده شده مختلف که گوشت های سر، و گونه، و گوشت های ماهیچه ای دیگر مانند قلب ها، نای ها، و سنگدان مرغ ها، را شامل می وند و برطبق میزان چربی آن ها، به گوشت های بدون چربی و با چربی و پیوند آبی شان تقسیم می شوند.

کنترل رطوبت، چربی و با چربی در فرمولاسیون کالباس و سوسیس های مختلف ممکن نیست.

نمونه های گوناگونی از میان خود حیوانات هم چنین، ترتیب عملکرد، تنوع و گوناگونی را عرضه می کند. تولیدکننده انواع کالباس ها و سوسیس ها باید این تنوع را در ساختن کالباس ها و سوسیس ها قرار دهند تا یک محصول تکمیل شده با قوام و یکنواختی بیشتر بدست آورد. که بدیهتاً جذابیت بیشتری را از نظر خریدار (مشتری) خواهد داشت.

وضعیت گوشت ها در نوع و کیفیت خیلی مخصوص و ویژه است. بدین ترتیب به منظور بدست آوردن یک محصول با فرمولاسیون دقیق طبق ظرفیت چربی، رطوبت و پروتئین طبقه بندی می شوند.

در این طبقه بندی ها گوشت خوک حاوی چربی بیش از 40% می باشد. گوشت گاوی مقام اول را از نظر بیشترین پروتئین و چربی دارد. مانند گوشت ران یا گوشت دنده.

گوشت هایی که میزان پیوند آبی بالایی دارند، برای فراوری انواع کالباس ها و سوسیس ها توصیه می شوند. مانند گوشت گاو نر، گوشت گاو ماده، گوشت گوساله، گوشت بدون چربی خوک، و گوشت مرغ خانگی.

مرغوبیت بعضی از گوشت های استحاله شده گاو مناسب نیست زیرا بعضی از آن ها کبود شده اند و نباید در کالباس ها و سویس ها آن ها را به کار برد.

گوشت گوساله یک رنگ روشنی را به کالباس ها و سوسیس ها می دهد. گوشت گوسفندی خصوصیات عالی دارد. و طعم و مزه مناسبی دارد. و معمولاً حدود 20-15% سرجمع استفاده می شود. علی رغم این همه کالباس و سوسیس های گوشت گوسفندی در یک کشور شهرت بالایی دارند.

گوشت بوفالو به ندرت برای تولید انواع کالباس ها و سوسیس ها استفاده می شود. معمولاً بوفالوها در سن پیری ذبح می شوند. گوشت بوفالو یک رنگ تیره یا به کالباس و سویس ها می دهد ولی از نظر کیفی بسیار عالی است. گوشت راسته ی گاو، گوشت خوک، ... مشخصات میانه ای دارند.

گوشت های گاو و خوک بعد از ذبح حیوان در همان لحظه برای از بین بردن خون های چسبیده شده کاملاً شسته می شوند. آن ها را به سرعت سرد می کنند. یا فوراً در انواع کالباس ها و سوسیس های مختلف استفاده می شوند. شانه، کتف و قسمت های بریده شده ی دیگر گوشت خوک استخوان گیری می شوند و در انواع کالباس ها و سوسیس ها استفاده می شوند.

قواعدانگلیسی

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In the name of God»

(A افعال بی قاعده

همانطوریکه از اسم این افعال مشخص است این افعال روش و قاعده خاصی ندارند. لذا این افعال را باید حفظ کرد. در پایان کتاب درسی این افعال آمده است. ضمناً قسمت سوم فعل یا اسم مفعول مربوطه به سال سوم راهنمایی نمی باشد. و برای اطلاع آورده شده است.

اسم مفعول

زمان گذشته

زمان حال

اسم مفعول

زمان گذشته

زمان حال

قسمت سوم فعال

قسمت دوم فعل

قسمت اول فعل

قسمت سوم فعال

قسمت دوم فعل

قسمت اول فعل

Left

Left

leave

let

let

let

made

made

make

put

put

put

met

met

meet

read

read

read

said

said

say

shut

shut

shut

sat

sat

sit

spent

spent

spend

come

came

come

slept

slept

sleep

run

ran

run

taught

taught

teach

thought

thought

think

brought

brought

bring

bought

bought

buy

been

Was/were

am/is/are

felt

felt

feel

Begun

began

begin

forgot

forgot

forget

broken

broke

break

got /gotten

got

get

done

did

Do/does

had

had

Have/has

drunk

drank

drink

kept

kept

keep

driven

drove

drive

learnt

learnt

learn

اسم مفعول

زمان گذشته

زمان حال

اسم مفعول

زمان گذشته

زمان حال

قسمت سوم فعال

قسمت دوم فعل

قسمت اول فعل

قسمت سوم فعال

قسمت دوم فعل

قسمت اول فعل

spoken

spoke

speak

eaten

ate

eat

swam

swam

swim

given

gave

give

taken

took

take

gone

went

go

waken

woke

wake

known

knew

know

written

wrote

write

ridden

rode

ride

shown

showed

show

seen

saw

see

B) افعال با قاعده

این افعال در آخر کتاب نیست . همانطوریکه از اسم آن پیداست دارای روش و قاعده ای میباشند . یعنی اگر به این افعال d یا ed اضافه کنیم زمان گذشته و اسم مفعول بدست می آید. در نتیجه در افعال با قاعده زمان گذشته و اسم مفعول یکی است.

تذکر: اگر آخر فعل با قاعده ای e باشد فقط باید به آن d اضافه کنیم تا زمان گذشته یا اسم مفعول بدست آید در غیر اینصورت به بقیه افعال ed اضافه می کنیم .

تذکر 2: اگر فعل با قاعده ای آخرش باشد: 1) اگر قبل از یکی از حروف صدادار (a-i-o-u-e) باشد فقط به آن ed اضافه می کنیم. ولی اگر قبل از یکی از حروف صدادار نباشد ابتدا را به I تبدیل می کنیم سپس به آن ed اضافه می کنیم.

اسم مفعول

زمان گذشته

زمان حال

اسم مفعول

زمان گذشته

زمان حال

قسمت سوم فعال

قسمت دوم فعل

قسمت اول فعل

قسمت سوم فعال

قسمت دوم فعل

قسمت اول فعل

liked

liked

like

arrived

arrived

arrive

loved

loved

love

closed

closed

close

phoned

phoned

phone

اسم مفعول

زمان گذشته

زمان حال

اسم مفعول

زمان گذشته

زمان حال

قسمت سوم فعال

قسمت دوم فعل

قسمت اول فعل

قسمت سوم فعال

قسمت دوم فعل

قسمت اول فعل

pointed

pointed

point

answered

answered

answer

posted

posted

post

asked

asked

ask

rained

rained

rain

called

called

call

worked

worked

work

cleaned

cleaned

clean

talked

talked

talk

combed

combed

combe

turned

turned

turn

cooked

cooked

cook

visited

visited

visit

crossed

crossed

cross

waited

waited

wait

finished

finished

finish

washed

washed

wash

guessed

guessed

guess

watched

watched

watch

looked

looked

look

needed

needed

need

hurried

hurried

hurry

opened

opened

Open

studied

studied

study

parked

parked

park

enjoyed

enjoyed

enjoy

played

played

play

prayed

prayed

pray

stayed

stayed

stay

c) زمانها

@ زمان حال ساده :

عملی است که در زمان حال انجام گیرد و تکرار عملی را در زمان حال نشان می دهد.

فاعل +فعل زمان حال (قسمت اول فعل )+ …..+

مقاله روانشناسی

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تعداد صفحات: 21

Psychology is an academic and applied discipline which involves the scientific study of human or animal mental functions and behaviors. In addition or opposition to employing scientific methods, psychologists often rely upon symbolic interpretation and critical analysis, albeit less frequently than other social sciences such as sociology.

A professional theorist or practitioner of psychology is called a psychologist. Psychologists study such phenomena as perception, cognition, attention, emotion, motivation, personality, behavior and interpersonal relationships. Some, especially depth psychologists, also consider the unconscious mind.a Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the underlying physiological and neurological processes.

Psychological knowledge is applied to various spheres of human activity including the family, education, employment, and the treatment of mental health problems. Psychology includes many sub-fields that span areas as diverse as human development, sports, health, industry, media and law. Psychology incorporates research from the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities

The study of psychology in philosophical context dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia. Psychology began adopting a more clinical[2] and experimental[3] approach under medieval Muslim psychologists and physicians, who built psychiatric hospitals for such purposes.[2]b

In 1802, French physiologist Pierre Cabanis helped to pioneer biological psychology with his essay Rapports du physique et du moral de l'homme (On the relations between the physical and moral aspects of man). Cabanis interpreted the mind in light of his previous studies of biology, arguing that sensibility and soul are properties of the nervous system.

Though the use of psychological experimentation dates back to Alhazen's Book of Optics in 1021,[3][4] psychology as an independent experimental field of study began in 1879, when the German physician Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research at Leipzig University in Germany, for which Wundt is known as the "father of psychology".[5] The year 1879 is thus sometimes regarded as the "birthdate" of psychology. The American philosopher and psychologist William James published his seminal book, Principles of Psychology[6] in 1890, laying the foundations for many of the questions on which psychologists would focus for years to come. Other important early contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), a pioneer in the experimental study of memory at the University of Berlin; and the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) who investigated the learning process now referred to as classical conditioning.

Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques set forth by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others would be reiterated as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitive (concerned with information and its processing) and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider cognitive science.[7] In its early years, however, this development was seen as a "revolution",[7] as it both responded to and reacted against strains of thought—including psychodynamics and behaviorism—that had developed in the meantime.

Psychoanalysis

From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed a method of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis. Freud's understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations, and was focused in particular on resolving unconscious conflict, mental distress and psychopathology. Freud's theories became very well-known, largely because they tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Clinically, he helped to pioneer the method of free association and a therapeutic interest in dreams.

Freud had a significant influence on Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, whose analytical psychology became an alternative form of depth psychology. Other well-known psychoanalytic thinkers of the mid-twentieth century included Sigmund Freud's daughter psychoanalyst Anna Freud, German-American psychologist Erik Erickson, Austrian-British psychoanalyst Melanie Klein, English psychoanalyst and physician D. W. Winnicott, German psychologist Karen Horney, German-born psychologist and philosopher Erich Fromm, and English psychiatrist John Bowlby. Throughout the 20th century, psychoanalysis evolved into diverse schools of thought, most of which may be classed as Neo-Freudian.c

Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists such as B. F. Skinner and Hans Eysenck, and by philosophers including Karl Popper. Skinner and other behaviorists believed that psychology should be more empirical and efficient than psychoanalysis, although they frequently agreed with Freud in ways that became overlooked as time passed.[8] Popper, a philosopher of science, argued that Freud's, as well as Alfred Adler's, psychoanalytic theories included enough ad hoc safeguards against empirical contradiction that the theories fell outside the realm of scientific inquiry.[9] By contrast, Eysenck maintained that although Freudian ideas could be subjected to experimental science, they had not withstood experimental tests. By the 21st century, psychology departments in American universities had become experimentally oriented, marginalizing Freudian theory and regarding it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact.[10] Meanwhile, however, researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis defended some of Freud's ideas on scientific grounds,d while scholars of the humanities maintained that Freud was not a "scientist at all, but ... an interpreter."[10]

Behaviorism

Founded in the early 20th century by American psychologist John B. Watson, behaviorism was embraced and extended by Americans Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism reflected a belief that the methodology behind laboratory-based animal experimentation, which was increasing in popularity as physiology grew more sophisticated, could provide useful psychosocial understanding of a type that comparatively subjective inquiries, such as psychodynamic analysis as employed by Freud or introspection as used by Wundt and James, could not.

The behaviorists shared with their predecessors a philosophical inclination toward positivism and determinism.[8] With Skinner, however, they entered into a line of thought, extending back to Austrian physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach, which held that the research methods most faithful to their scientific orientation would yield "the pursuit of tools for the control of life problems rather than a search for timeless truths".[8] The behaviorists argued that many contents of the mind were not open to scientific scrutiny and that scientific psychology should emphasize the study of observable behavior. Behaviorists focused on behavior-environment relations and analyzed overt and covert (i.e., private) behavior as a function of the organism interacting with its environment.[11] Therefore, they often rejected or deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness"; and, in lieu of probing an "unconscious mind" that underlies unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped behaviors" in which unawareness becomes outwardly manifest.[8]

Among the behaviorists' most famous creations are Watson's Little Albert experiment, which applied classical conditioning to a human being, and Skinner's notion of operant conditioning, which acknowledged that human agency could affect patterns and cycles of environmental stimuli and behavioral responses. American linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is regarded by many as a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence.[12] But Skinner's behaviorism has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications.[12] The fall of behaviorism as an overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm: cognitive approaches.[13]

Humanism and existentialism

Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach sought to glimpse the whole person—not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning.[14] Humanism focused on fundamentally and uniquely human issues, such as self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanistic approach was distinguished by its emphasis on subjective meaning, rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology. Some of the founders of this school of thought were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy; and German-American psychiatrist Fritz Perls, who co-founded Gestalt therapy. It became so influential as to be called the "third force" within psychology, along with behaviorism and psychoanalysis.[15] Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific modes of exploration.

Influenced largely by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically-trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an existential breed of psychology, which included existential therapy, in the 1950s and 1960s. Existential psychologists differed from others often classified as humanistic in their comparatively neutral view of human nature and in their relatively positive assessment of anxiety.[16] Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths, or narrative patterns,[17] and that it can be encouraged by an acceptance of the free will requisite to an authentic, albeit often anxious, regard for death and other future prospects. Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections garnered from his own internment,[18] and he created a variety of existential psychotherapy called logotherapy. In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may be said to belong to the existential school.[19]

I can answer the question

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"I can answer the question, but am I bright enough to ask it?" — James Lee Byars, founder, The World Question Center"Fantastically stimulating...It's like the crack cocaine of the thinking world.... Once you start, you can't stop thinking about that question." — BBC Radio 4

The Edge Annual Question — 2006

WHAT IS YOUR DANGEROUS IDEA?

The history of science is replete with discoveries that were considered socially, morally, or emotionally dangerous in their time; the Copernican and Darwinian revolutions are the most obvious. What is your dangerous idea? An idea you think about (not necessarily one you originated) that is dangerous not because it is assumed to be false, but because it might be true?

[Thanks to Steven Pinker for suggesting the Edge Annual Question — 2006.]

January 1, 2006

To the Edge Community,

Last year's 2005 Edge Question — "What do you believe is true even though you cannot prove it?" — generated many eye-opening responses from a "who's who" of third culture scientists and science-minded thinkers. The 120 contributions comprised a document of 60,000 words. The New York Times ("Science Times") and Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung ("Feuilliton") published excepts in their print and online editions simultaneously with Edge publication.

The event was featured in major media across the world: BBC Radio; Il Sole 24 Ore, Prospect, El Pais, The Financial Express (Bangledesh), The Sunday Times (UK), The Sydney Morning Herald, The Guardian, La Stampa, The Telegraph, among others. A book based on the 2005 Question — What We Believe But Cannot Prove: Today's Leading Thinkers on Science in the Age of Certainty, with an introduction by the novelist Ian McEwan — was just published by the Free Press (UK). The US edition follows from HarperCollins in February, 2006.

Since September, Edge has been featured and/or cited in The Toronto Star, Boston Globe, Seed, Rocky Mountain Mews, Observer, El Pais, La Vanguaria (cover story) , El Mundo, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Science, Financial Times, Newsweek, AD, La Stampa, The Telegraph, Quark (cover story), and The Wall Street Journal.

Online publication of the 2006 Question occurred on New Year's Day. To date, the event has been covered by The Telegraph, The Guardian, The Times, Arts & Letters Daily, Yahoo! News, and The Huffington Post.

Something radically new is in the air: new ways of understanding physical systems, new ways of thinking about thinking that call into question many of our basic assumptions.  A realistic biology of the mind, advances in evolutionary biology, physics, information technology, genetics, neurobiology, psychology, engineering, the chemistry of materials: all are questions of critical importance with respect to what it means to be human. For the first time, we have the tools and the will to undertake the scientific study of human nature.

What you will find emerging out of the 119 original essays in the 75,000 word document written in response to the 2006 Edge Question — "What is your dangerous idea?" — are indications of a new natural philosophy, founded on the realization of the import of complexity, of evolution. Very complex systems — whether organisms, brains, the biosphere, or the universe itself — were not constructed by design; all have evolved. There is a new set of metaphors to describe ourselves, our minds, the universe, and all of the things we know in it.

Welcome to Edge. Welcome to "dangerous ideas". Happy New Year.

John BrockmanPublisher & Editor

119 contributors [75,000 words]: Martin Rees J. Craig Venter Leo Chalupa V.S. Ramachandran David Buss Paul Bloom Philip Campbell Jesse Bering Paul Ewald Bart Kosko Matt Ridley David Pizarro Randolph Nesse Gregory Benford Marco Iacoboni Barry C. Smith Philip W. Anderson Timothy Taylor Oliver Morton Samuel Barondes David Bodanis Nicholas Humphrey Eric Fischl Stanislas Dehaene Joel Garreau Helen Fisher Paul Davies April Gornik Jamshed Bharucha Jordan Pollack Juan Enriquez Stephen Kosslyn Jerry Coyne Ernst Pöppel Geoffrey Miller Robert Shapiro Kai Krause Carlo Rovelli Richard Dawkins Seth Lloyd Carolyn Porco Michael Nesmith Lawrence Krauss Daniel C. Dennett Daniel Gilbert Andy Clark Sherry Turkle Steven Strogatz Terrence Sejnowski Lynn Margulis Thomas Metzinger Diane Halpern Gary Marcus Jaron Lanier W. Daniel Hillis Neil Gershenfeld Paul Steinhardt Sam Harris Scott Atran Marcelo Gleiser Douglas Rushkoff Judith Rich Harris Alun Anderson Todd Feinberg Stewart Brand Jared Diamond Leonard Susskind Gerald Holton Charles Seife Karl Sabbagh Rupert Sheldrake Tor Nørretranders John Horgan Eric R. Kandel Daniel Goleman Brian Greene David Gelernter Mahzarin Banaji Rodney Brooks Lee Smolin Alison Gopnik Kevin Kelly Denis Dutton Simon Baron-Cohen Freeman Dyson Gregory Cochran George B. Dyson Keith Devlin Frank Tipler Scott Sampson Jeremy Bernstein Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi Irene Pepperberg Brian Goodwin Rudy Rucker Steven Pinker Richard E. Nisbett Robert Provine Donald Hoffman Marc D. Hauser Ray Kurzweil Haim Harari David G. Myers Clay Shirky Michael Shermer Arnold Trehub Roger Schank Susan Blackmore David Lykken Clifford Pickover John Allen Paulos James O'Donnell Philip Zimbardo Richard Foreman John Gottman Piet Hut Dan Sperber Martin E.P. Seligman Howard Gardner

The Edge Annual Question — 2006WHAT IS YOUR DANGEROUS IDEA?

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Kyung HangSoeul, South Korea The great world-wide scholars talk about ' danerous thoughts'

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Psychology is an academic and applied discipline which involves the scientific study of human or animal mental functions and behaviors. In addition or opposition to employing scientific methods, psychologists often rely upon symbolic interpretation and critical analysis, albeit less frequently than other social sciences such as sociology.

A professional theorist or practitioner of psychology is called a psychologist. Psychologists study such phenomena as perception, cognition, attention, emotion, motivation, personality, behavior and interpersonal relationships. Some, especially depth psychologists, also consider the unconscious mind.a Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the underlying physiological and neurological processes.

Psychological knowledge is applied to various spheres of human activity including the family, education, employment, and the treatment of mental health problems. Psychology includes many sub-fields that span areas as diverse as human development, sports, health, industry, media and law. Psychology incorporates research from the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities

The study of psychology in philosophical context dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia. Psychology began adopting a more clinical[2] and experimental[3] approach under medieval Muslim psychologists and physicians, who built psychiatric hospitals for such purposes.[2]b

In 1802, French physiologist Pierre Cabanis helped to pioneer biological psychology with his essay Rapports du physique et du moral de l'homme (On the relations between the physical and moral aspects of man). Cabanis interpreted the mind in light of his previous studies of biology, arguing that sensibility and soul are properties of the nervous system.

Though the use of psychological experimentation dates back to Alhazen's Book of Optics in 1021,[3][4] psychology as an independent experimental field of study began in 1879, when the German physician Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research at Leipzig University in Germany, for which Wundt is known as the "father of psychology".[5] The year 1879 is thus sometimes regarded as the "birthdate" of psychology. The American philosopher and psychologist William James published his seminal book, Principles of Psychology[6] in 1890, laying the foundations for many of the questions on which psychologists would focus for years to come. Other important early contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909), a pioneer in the experimental study of memory at the University of Berlin; and the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) who investigated the learning process now referred to as classical conditioning.

Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques set forth by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others would be reiterated as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitive (concerned with information and its processing) and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider cognitive science.[7] In its early years, however, this development was seen as a "revolution",[7] as it both responded to and reacted against strains of thought—including psychodynamics and behaviorism—that had developed in the meantime.

Psychoanalysis

From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed a method of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis. Freud's understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations, and was focused in particular on resolving unconscious conflict, mental distress and psychopathology. Freud's theories became very well-known, largely because they tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Clinically, he helped to pioneer the method of free association and a therapeutic interest in dreams.

Freud had a significant influence on Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, whose analytical psychology became an alternative form of depth psychology. Other well-known psychoanalytic thinkers of the mid-twentieth century included Sigmund Freud's daughter psychoanalyst Anna Freud, German-American psychologist Erik Erickson, Austrian-British psychoanalyst Melanie Klein, English psychoanalyst and physician D. W. Winnicott, German psychologist Karen Horney, German-born psychologist and philosopher Erich Fromm, and English psychiatrist John Bowlby. Throughout the 20th century, psychoanalysis evolved into diverse schools of thought, most of which may be classed as Neo-Freudian.c

Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists such as B. F. Skinner and Hans Eysenck, and by philosophers including Karl Popper. Skinner and other behaviorists believed that psychology should be more empirical and efficient than psychoanalysis, although they frequently agreed with Freud in ways that became overlooked as time passed.[8] Popper, a philosopher of science, argued that Freud's, as well as Alfred Adler's, psychoanalytic theories included enough ad hoc safeguards against empirical contradiction that the theories fell outside the realm of scientific inquiry.[9] By contrast, Eysenck maintained that although Freudian ideas could be subjected to experimental science, they had not withstood experimental tests. By the 21st century, psychology departments in American universities had become experimentally oriented, marginalizing Freudian theory and regarding it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact.[10] Meanwhile, however, researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis defended some of Freud's ideas on scientific grounds,d while scholars of the humanities maintained that Freud was not a "scientist at all, but ... an interpreter."[10]

Behaviorism

Founded in the early 20th century by American psychologist John B. Watson, behaviorism was embraced and extended by Americans Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B. F. Skinner. Behaviorism reflected a belief that the methodology behind laboratory-based animal experimentation, which was increasing in popularity as physiology grew more sophisticated, could provide useful psychosocial understanding of a type that comparatively subjective inquiries, such as psychodynamic analysis as employed by Freud or introspection as used by Wundt and James, could not.

The behaviorists shared with their predecessors a philosophical inclination toward positivism and determinism.[8] With Skinner, however, they entered into a line of thought, extending back to Austrian physicist and philosopher Ernst Mach, which held that the research methods most faithful to their scientific orientation would yield "the pursuit of tools for the control of life problems rather than a search for timeless truths".[8] The behaviorists argued that many contents of the mind were not open to scientific scrutiny and that scientific psychology should emphasize the study of observable behavior. Behaviorists focused on behavior-environment relations and analyzed overt and covert (i.e., private) behavior as a function of the organism interacting with its environment.[11] Therefore, they often rejected or deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness"; and, in lieu of probing an "unconscious mind" that underlies unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped behaviors" in which unawareness becomes outwardly manifest.[8]

Among the behaviorists' most famous creations are Watson's Little Albert experiment, which applied classical conditioning to a human being, and Skinner's notion of operant conditioning, which acknowledged that human agency could affect patterns and cycles of environmental stimuli and behavioral responses. American linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is regarded by many as a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence.[12] But Skinner's behaviorism has not died, perhaps in part because it has generated successful practical applications.[12] The fall of behaviorism as an overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm: cognitive approaches.[13]

Humanism and existentialism

Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach sought to glimpse the whole person—not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning.[14] Humanism focused on fundamentally and uniquely human issues, such as self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanistic approach was distinguished by its emphasis on subjective meaning, rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology. Some of the founders of this school of thought were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy; and German-American psychiatrist Fritz Perls, who co-founded Gestalt therapy. It became so influential as to be called the "third force" within psychology, along with behaviorism and psychoanalysis.[15] Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific modes of exploration.

Influenced largely by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically-trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an existential breed of psychology, which included existential therapy, in the 1950s and 1960s. Existential psychologists differed from others often classified as humanistic in their comparatively neutral view of human nature and in their relatively positive assessment of anxiety.[16] Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths, or narrative patterns,[17] and that it can be encouraged by an acceptance of the free will requisite to an authentic, albeit often anxious, regard for death and other future prospects. Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections garnered from his own internment,[18] and he created a variety of existential psychotherapy called logotherapy. In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may be said to belong to the existential school.[19]